Cannabis and Marijuana Plants

Marijuana Marijuana is a psychoactive drug, and is the most controversial of these types of drugs. The reason being is that there are so many myths and misconceptions that surround marijuana. It is not clear about the addiction potential, physical and psychological problems of marijuana. . Marijuana is the third most popular recreational drug in America behind only alcohol and tobacco, and has been used by nearly 100 million Americans (marijuana). Marijuana is widely used and it is estimated that nearly 25% of Americans have used marijuana once in their lives and that 2-5 million people use it daily despite it being illegal.Marijuana is a mixture of crushed leaves, flowers, small branches, stems, and seed of the hemp plant. This plant grows best in tropical climates and can be found throughout the world. Most countries cultivate this plant on purpose. Cannabis Indica species can withstand colder climates (â€Å"Marijuana, history of,†) If marijuana were to become a cash crop i t would be the largest grown in the United States. It is one of the most commonly used drugs in the world, following caffeine, nicotine, and alcoholic beverages in the popularity.In the United States, where the route of admission is usually smoking, it also has been called weed, grass, pot, or reefer (â€Å"Marijuana, history of,†). Marijuana is a depressant. The effects of marijuana may vary with its strength and dosage and with the state of mind of the user. High doses can cause tachycardia, paranoia, and delusions (â€Å"Marijuana, history of,†). Marijuana can also have a psychedelic effect in high doses. With this being said, marijuana is classified as both a depressant and a psychedelic.Marijuana does produce some of the same effects as hallucinogens like a LSD or mescaline, but it differs chemically and pharmacologically. Marijuana is made up of many chemicals. There are currently 426 known compounds in the plant. When marijuana is burned there are 1500 additiona l compounds that are formed. The chemical compounds that are found in marijuana only are called cannabinoids. These cannabinoids are the most active and mind-altering ingredients in marijuana. The primary active component of marijuana is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), although other cannabin derivatives are also thought to be intoxicating.In 1988 scientists discovered receptors that bind THC on the membranes of nerve cells. They reasoned that the body must make its own THC-like substance. The substance, named anandamide, was isolated from pig brains in 1992 by an American pharmacologist, William A. Devane (â€Å"Marijuana, history of,†). The potency of marijuana is determined by the amount of THC present. All the parts of the plant have different concentrations of THC. So the mixture of the plant material used and the conditions of how the plant was grown determines the potency of this drug sold on the street.The root of this plant has no THC value, the stalk have very l ittle value, there is some THC found in the branches, there is a moderate amount of THC found in the leaves(male has 5 leaves and female has 7 leaves), and the highest amount of THC concentration will be found in the buds, flowers and seeds. The concentration of THC has increased over the past 30 years. Marijuana is 25 to 40 times more potent than it was in the 1960’s, it’s up from . 2% to 5-8% pure today. Marijuana dates back to 2700 B. C. in ancient China. The plant was used to make rope, cloth, and paper from its fiber.It was during this time that the resins, flowers, and leaves from the plant could also be used for medical use. It was used to treat gout, malaria, and gas pains. It was by 500 B. C. that the Chinese put a ban of the use of the plant because of it unpredictable intoxicating effects. Marijuana was introduced into ancient India mainly for the mind altering effects. Marijuana was used in religious ceremonies the euphoria producing ability. It didnâ€℠¢t take long for the plant to be recognized for its intoxicating effects and its value in making rope and cloth.In America the public didn’t show any interest in marijuana as a recreational drug. It was just used in medicines. It was primarily prescribed legally for a numerous physical and mental aliments until 1940. In fact when Congress passed the Harrison Narcotics Act in 1914, many drugs were removed from the marketplace, but it excluded marijuana. It was not until the prohibition of alcohol that marijuana smoking became prominent. The Mexican immigrants were introducing marijuana along the Mexican border, while West Indian sailors were bringing it into the Gulf States.People no longer could legally use alcohol in and get their intoxicating effects so smoking marijuana became very popular. It became apparent in the 1930’s that marijuana was being abused and there was an increase in violence because of its use. Tales were beginning to spread of the effects, murder, rape, sexual excess, and memory loss from using marijuana. The federal government tried to scare the public with a film called â€Å"reefer madness†, but it actually did more harm than good. In 1935 the states took action and started passing their own laws towards non-medical use of marijuana.In 1937 the federal government stepped up and passed a Marijuana Tax Act that prohibited the use of all non-medical marijuana, the possession and use of cannabis nationwide. Marijuana came back on the scene during the World War II era. It was extensively cultivated during the World War II era, when Asian sources of hemp were cut off (â€Å"Marijuana, history of,†). It was commercially grown. The Philippines were being invaded by the Japanese so there was no sisal plant to make rope. American farmers were actually encouraged to the marijuana plants for rope production.Birds loved the seeds of this plant and when they would leave their droppings it would start wild plants of marijua na to grow throughout the United States. Marijuana became a very popular drug of choice because of its availability. Today marijuana is a widely used illegal drug among many ethnic groups. Hispanics are among 9. 2 percent of users; non-Hispanic blacks (7. 7% , nearly 8 percent of females used marijuana in the past year vs. 14% of males used in the past year); non-Hispanic whites (6. 7%, nearly 7 percent vs. 11 percent); Asian/Pacific Islanders (2. 0%, 2% vs. 7. %); South Americans (4. 2%, more than 4% vs. 13 percent). It can be found on the street for a price of $250-500 ounce depending on where it is bought. The cheapest is in Oregon at $258 ounce and most expensive in Washington D. C. at $486 ounce. Age itself is one of the most significant variables in understanding marijuana use. Past-year use of marijuana increased with age, to a peak prevalence of about 23 percent among 18 -25 year olds, before declining to about 44 percent among persons aged 35 and older. Among adults, male s moking rates for marijuana are nearly twice those for females.IN the total surveyed population, males were about 70% more likely than females to have used marijuana in the past year (11 percent versus 6. 7, nearly 7 percent). The only exception to the data showing more male smokers of marijuana than females occurs among children and teens. There still remains controversy over the medical uses of marijuana. Proponents are saying that it is useful for treating pain and the nausea and vomiting that are side effects of cancer chemotherapy and for restoring the appetite in people with AIDS (â€Å"Marijuana, history of,†) Modern research uggests that cannabis is a valuable aid in the treatment of a wide range of clinical applications. These include pain relief-in particular (neuropathic pain), nausea, plasticity, glaucoma, and movement disorders. Marijuana is also a powerful appetite stimulant, specifically for patients suffering from HIV, the AIDS wasting syndrome, or dementia (Ma rijuana). What are the acute effects of marijuana? Marijuana can reach the brain through the bloodstream in less than 30 seconds of smoking a joint. It delivers a physical and psychological effect rather quickly.The peak of the effects is usually reached by the time smoking is finished. If a person wants these effects to last longer they would have to consume the marijuana orally from brownies for example. This would allow the marijuana to be absorbed into the system much longer and these effects would last over 2-3 hours. It only takes a single use of marijuana to impair a person’s motor coordination. The person who just used marijuana may think that they are just fine, but they are really clumsy. This kind of thinking from a person under the influence only spells disaster waiting to happen.A person under the influence of marijuana and their ability to follow a moving stimulus is greatly diminished and can last up to 4-8 hours beyond the point of intoxication. This would int erfere with their driving skills. Also their ability to perceive light will be significantly impaired and would be a major risk for someone operating heavy machinery. Marijuana has some serious physical effects on a person. Although legalization activists and many marijuana users believe smoking pot has no negative effects, scientific research indicates that marijuana use can cause many different health problems (The health effects of marijuana, n. . ) . Smoking a single joint of marijuana is the equivalent of smoking 15 cigarettes. Marijuana has at least 50% more tar and carcinogenic materials than cigarettes. Because marijuana is not filtered it enters the lungs at a temperature hotter than cigarette smoke and thus drying and irritating the tissues in the lung. Marijuana has been shown to increase the heart rate. Within a few minutes after smoking marijuana, the heart begins beating more rapidly and the blood pressure drops.Marijuana can cause the heart beat to increase by 20 to 5 0 beats per minute, and can increase even more if other drugs are used at the same time (The health effects of marijuana, n. d. ) It is because of the lower blood pressure and higher heart rate that the researchers have found that a person smoking marijuana has a 4 times greater risk of heart attack compared to them not smoking marijuana. If a person is aware that they have heart disease they should avoid the use of marijuana. Marijuana can hurt the immune system of a person’s lungs.Smoking marijuana can paralyze or destroy the anti-infection white blood cells of the lungs. It is because of this that most smokers will develop laryngitis, pharyngitis, bronchitis, cough, hoarseness, and dry throat. Research indicates that THC impairs the body’s immune system from fighting disease, which can cause a wide variety of health problems. One study found that marijuana actually inhibited the disease-preventing actions of key immune cell (The health effects of marijuana, n. d. ) . There have been recent studies that show marijuana can depress T cells.The depressing of T-lymphocyte functions known as â€Å"killer T cells† would make a person more susceptible to the AIDS infection. The greatest concern is the fact that marijuana is a drug. Some of the most profound effects occur in the brain. Marijuana produces a sense of euphoria, but it also produces anxiety, confusion and if used heavily-drug induced psychosis. Not to mention the effects on reflexes, vision, and motor coordination. Marijuana has effects on long-term memory, because studies suggest that marijuana will fill a synaptic gap between brain cells which stops the flow of electrical signals.Marijuana users experience burn-out or amotivational syndrome from regular use. They have a lack of concern for the future, loss of motivation, loss of ambition, loss of effectiveness, dullness, diminished ability to carry out long term planning, difficulty in concentration, intermittent confusion, impair ed memory, and a decline in work and school performance. There are treatments for marijuana disorders. Marijuana dependence may appear to be very similar to other substance dependence disorders, but the long term clinical outcomes may be less severe.The adults who are seeking treatment for marijuana abuse or dependence have used marijuana nearly every day for more than 10 years and have attempted to quit more than six times (â€Å"Marijuana abuse,†). Let it be noted that marijuana dependence is most prevalent in patients that are suffering from other psychiatric disorders, who are mostly adolescents or young adults. Usually dependence in marijuana co-occurs with other drugs such as cocaine and alcohol. Studies indicate that effectively treating the mental health disorder with standard treatments involving medications and behavioral therapies may help reduce annabis use, particularly among heavy users and those with more chronic mental disorders. Behavioral treatments, such as motivational enhancement therapy (MET), group or individual cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and contingency management (CM), as well as family-based treatments, have shown promise (â€Å"Marijuana abuse,†). Success rates of those seeking treatment are modest and even the most effective treatment for adults will only achieve 50% abstinence in a 2 week period. Those that do achieve a full two week abstinence, more than half will resume use within a year.Across studies, 1 year abstinence rates have ranged between q0 and 30 percent for the various behavioral approaches (â€Å"Marijuana abuse,†). This data suggest that a more chronic care model should be considered for marijuana addiction. The intensity of the treatment can be stepped up or down based on the patients need. The availability of family and other supports are needed. There are currently no medications to treat the abuse of marijuana, but there is ongoing research being conducted. The studies are mostly tar geting the withdrawal syndrome of marijuana.For example, a recent human laboratory study showed that a combination of a cannabin agonist medication with loffexidine ( a medication approved in the United Kingdom for the treatment of opioid withdrawal) produced more robust improvements in sleep and decreased marijuana withdrawal, craving, and relapse in daily marijuana smokers relative to either medication alone(â€Å"Marijuana abuse,†). There have been recent discoveries about endogenous cannabin systems inner workings. It raises the possibility of a future medication that would be able to block THC’s intoxicating effects.This would prevent patients from relapsing by eliminating marijuana’s appeal. References Abbott, A. (2010). Alcohol tobacco and other drugs (2nd ed. ). Washington, DC: NASW Press. Colorado and washington legalized marijuana today, what happens now? (2012, November). Retrieved from http://blog. norml. org/2012/11/08/colorado-and-washington-legali zed-marijuana-tuesday-what-happens-now/ Demographics of marijuana users. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. opposingviews. com/i/gov-t-stats-reveal-demographics-of-adult-marijuana-users Drug facts: marijuana. (n. d. ). Retrieved from

Ban Cell Phones While Driving

Ban Cell Phones While Driving Almost every American has one. Some people use them strictly for business while others strictly for leisure. Most of us use them for both. They are always at our side ready to be answered, receive text messages, check email, or update our Facebook status. Cellphones have almost become a necessity in society. People regularly engage in a wide variety of multitasking activities when they are behind the wheel. Data from the 2000 U. S. census indicates that drivers spend an average of 25. min each day commuting to work, and there is a growing interest in trying to make the time spent on the roadway more productive (Reschovsky, 2004). Unfortunately, this leads to drivers being distracted on the road. I was a victim of an accident caused by a distracted driver on the telephone. I was in a parking lot about to park and a woman backed into me while she was talking on the phone. She profusely apologized and said she didn’t see me. It wasn’t that she couldn’t see me; she wasn’t paying attention because she was on the phone. Luckily, no one was hurt and there was minimal damage to my car.It’s just annoying and disheartening that people can be so careless. Cellphone use while driving needs to be banned in order to protect drivers and pedestrians alike. This isn’t just my personal opinion on the matter. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recommends that states to  ban drivers from any non-emergency use of cell phones and other electronic devices that aren't built into their automobile (Alhers, 2011). It also called on wireless companies to create technology that would â€Å"disable the functions of these portable electronic devices within reach of the driver when a vehicle is in motion† (Alhers, 2011).The recommendation came out of an investigation of a 2010 pickup truck-school bus pileup in Missouri last year that killed two people and injured 35. The investigation found that the pickup driver who caused the accident sent 11 text messages in the 11 minutes leading up to the accident, including some just before impact. The NTSB lacks the authority to impose regulations, but its safety recommendations are highly regarded and have led to many state and federal laws and regulations (NTSB 2011). On Oct. , 2009, President Barack Obama issued an executive order banning the use of text messaging while driving for federal government employees on official business or while using government-supplied equipment. He said, â€Å"text messaging causes drivers to take their eyes off the road and at least one hand off the steering wheel, endangering both themselves and others† (Obama, 2009). Texting while driving is banned in 37 states and the District of Columbia. 30 states ban all cell phone use for beginning drivers.Ten states prohibit all hand-held cell phone use while driving; however, no states currently ban the use of hands-free phones while driving. Most people don't put Bluetooth or Sync in their cars anyway because it’s too expensive. Talking on the phone, hands-free or not, puts the driver’s focus on the conversation and not what is going on around them. It’s impossible to accurately gauge how many car accidents nationwide are cell-phone related, but according to the Department of Transportation, distracted driving killed 3,092 people in the United States in 2010. David L.Strayer, a professor in the Department of Psychology at the University of Utah, stated the following in their Summer 2006 study comparing cell-phone use and intoxication while driving: It is now well established that cell phone use impairs the driving performance of younger adults. For example, drivers are more likely to miss critical traffic signals (traffic lights, a vehicle braking in front of the driver, etc. ), slower to respond to the signals that they do detect, and more likely to be involved in rear-end collisions when they are conversing on a cell phone.In addition, even when participants direct their gaze at objects in the driving environment, they often fail to ‘see' them when they are talking on a cell phone because attention has been directed away from the external environment and toward an internal, cognitive context associated with the phone conversation†¦ (p. 382) Strayer and his colleagues, with respect to traffic safety, found that the impairments associated with cell phone drivers may be as great as those commonly observed with intoxicated drivers.The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the Ad Council have launched the new Stop the Texts. Stop the Wrecks. This is a public service advertising public service announcement campaign nationwide. All of the PSAs direct audiences to StopTextsStopWrecks. org, a new campaign website where teens and young adults can find facts about the impact of texting while driving, and tips for how to curb the behavior. The website also has an ar ea where individuals can post and share their solutions to stop texting and driving on Facebook.The NHTSA also reported that pilot projects in Syracuse, New York, and Hartford, Connecticut, produced significant reductions in distracted driving by combining stepped-up ticketing with these high-profile public education campaigns. Before and after each enforcement wave, NHTSA researchers observed cellphone use by drivers and conducted surveys at drivers license offices in the two cities. They found that in Syracuse, hand-held cellphone use and texting declined by a third. In Hartford, there was a 57 percent drop in hand-held phone use, and texting behind the wheel dropped by nearly three-quarters (Wellenbach, 2011).There are many arguments against banning cell phone use infringes on the personal rights of motorists. Receiving a cell phone traffic ticket may negatively reflect on your driver record and can increase your insurance premiums. Those opposed to the ban feel it’s impos sible to enforce because a police officer can mistake a driver for texting someone when they are really changing a song on their MP3 player. Another counterargument is that holding a conversation on a cell phone while driving is no more distracting than being engaged with a passenger or rowdy kids in the back seat, eating fast food or messing around with the radio.Motorists know that using a cell phone while driving is distracting and should refrain from doing so. Another argument against banning cell phones is the use of Global Positioning Systems (GPS). Most GPS’s displays three-dimensional renderings of virtual surroundings. At least 10 states that ban texting while driving offer some type of service that allows motorists to get information about traffic tie-ups, road conditions or emergencies via Twitter (DeMillo, 2009). There is also an argument to implement hands free devices in all motor vehicles.Enforcing such advanced technology to be built would be extremely expensi ve. This technology, built-in speaker phones or no use of cell phone if driving over 30 miles per hour is not cheap. It is not cheap for the manufacturers or for the customers. The average prices of cars would rise, and if there are be technical errors, it would cost more to repair the car. Assume that the United States did enforce this law upon manufacturers in their country. What if someone drove to the United States from neighbor countries, where cars are not equipped with this technology?Should those drivers from the neighbor countries, then, be allowed to use cell phones? No. The best thing to do is having a strict law, banning cellphone while driving until such advanced equipment in cars becomes basic technology, and fairly priced. In a survey I conducted revealed that 80% of drivers between the ages of 16 to 24 use a cell phone while driving. 90% percent of 16 to 24 year olds have been on the road and noticed drivers swerving and talking/texting on the phone while driving. My research indicates that only 20% of drivers 55 and over admitted they use a cell phone while driving.This shows that younger people are more at risk to be involved in some sort of collision or accident. The last question of the survey was have you ever been at a red light and have someone honked at you while you were at a red light looking at phone? Even though the survey was anonymous I don’t think people wanted to admit that this has happened to them. Only 40% of all who took the survey answered yes to this question. I think if had a larger survey pool my information would have supported my argument further. Here is a graph of the results of the question Have you used a cell phone while driving:Several technology start-ups will release new products for phones that can detect when a car is in motion and automatically log incoming calls and texts much as a personal assistant would. All the products have provisions that allow both incoming and outgoing calls during emergencie s. The following products are services available to reduce driver distraction. The first one is Key2SafeDriving. Parents can set up a password-protected profile that won't allow calls or texts when a Bluetooth device detects that the car is in motion. Next, there is Aegis Mobility Drive Assist.This is downloaded software will use a phone's GPS to determine whether it is in a moving vehicle, then log incoming calls and texts, and respond with a message that you're driving. And finally the least restrictive of these three products, ZoomSafer, is downloadable software that lets you dictate text messages and updates to social-networking sites while you're driving (Cruz 2009). This is similar to the talk-to-text program that my Droid phone has. I have tried to use it while driving and it hasn’t been too successful. I have to push a button that records what I want to say and then â€Å"listens. The majority of the time the words are totally wrong and I’m more distracted bec ause I have to go back and delete everything. I know technology will evolve and create a safe way to communicate while operating a vehicle. The evidence from studies showing the negative effects of cellphone use while driving is overwhelming. People need to be less concerned with emails, social networks, and texting and be more focused on the road. There is no simple solution to get everyone to agree or follow the rules if such as ban was put into action.It will take a long time to give up their right of cellphone privileges, but the outcome is worth the sacrifice. References Ahlers, Mike. (2011, December 13). NTSB recommends full ban on use of cell phones while driving. Cable News Network. Retrieved from http://articles. cnn. com/2011-12-13/us/us_ntsb-c ell-phone-ban_1_smart-phones-texting-pickup-truck-driver? _s=PM:US Cruz, Gilbert. (2009, August 24). Distracted Driving: Should Talking, Texting Be Banned? Time Magazine. Retrieved from http://www. time. com/time/magazine/article/0, 9171,1916291-1,00. html DeMillo, A. (2009, Sept 19).Mixed Messages on Texting and Driving. Retrieved from Associated Press and Fox News website: http://www. foxnews. com/us/2009/09/19/states-send-mixed-message-texting-driving/ National Transportation Safety Board. (2011). No call, no text, no update behind the wheel: NTSB calls for nationwide ban on PEDs while driving [Press release]. Retrieved from http://www. ntsb. gov/news/2011/111213. html Obama, Barack. (2009, October 1). Executive Order 15313. Retrieved from http://www. whitehouse. gov/the-press-office/executive-order-federal-leadership-reducing-text-messaging-while-driving Strayer, D.L. & Drews, F. A. (2006). A Comparison of the Cell Phone Driver and the Drunk Driver Vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 381–391. Reschovsky, C. (2004). Journey to work: 2000, Census 2000 brief. Retrieved May 19, 2012 from http://www. census. gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-33. pdf Wellenbach, P. (2011, Dec. 8) More American drivers are texting while driving despite additional legal measures. New York Daily News. Retrieved from http://www. nydailynews. com/news/national/american-drivers-texting-driving-additional-legal-measures-article-1. 988991#commentpostform

A Scholarship Boy’s Longing

A Scholarship Boy’s Longing In his essay â€Å"The Achievement of Desire,† Richard Rodriguez acts as both a writer and reader in response to a book written by Richard Hoggart entitled The Uses of Literacy. Rodriguez discovers a parallel between his own life and the life of what Hoggart coins as a â€Å"scholarship boy.† A scholarship boy is defined as a child from a working-class family who feels as if he â€Å"cannot afford to admire his parents†¦so he concentrates on the benefits that education will bestow on him.† (566). For Rodriguez, the discovery and reading of the definition prompts him to gain the courage to realize and admit that his academic success is due to his early, emotional separation from both his family and his culture. Discovering Hoggart’s book was an epic moment in Rodriguez’s life. His nostalgic experience is expressed when he writes, â€Å"For the first time I realized that there were other students like me, and so I was able to frame the meaning of my academic success, its consequent price- the loss.† (564). Rodriguez’s academic success began when the â€Å"deepest love† he had for his parents turned into â€Å"embarrassment for their lack of education.† (566). Like Hoggart’s scholarship boy, he started isolating himself from them and transitioning his respect to his teachers. He realized that his parents had no room for societal growth, and if he chose to follow in their footsteps, he would be doomed to the same working-class life that they were marginalized into. Rodriguez’s embarrassment of his parents served as a catalyst to further his education. By idolizing his teachers, he realized that he was opening the doors to success. The only problem with opening the doors to success is that another door closes behind it. The intimate, family life in which Rodriguez found so much pleasure was left in a self-deprecating manner. He began to associate pleasure with inferiority. For a scholarship boy, it is â€Å"clear that education is a long, unglamorous, even demeaning process†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (578). Rodriguez would go to the library and check out the maximum number of books. Many of these books were recommendations from the teachers he admired so much or librarians who had gained a new fondness for him. This mirrors the words of Hoggart when he writes, â€Å"†¦The scholarship boy rarely discovers an author for himself and on his own.† (845). Every time Rodriguez did discover a book on his own and found it pleasurable, he disregarded it. There was no room for pleasure in his life. During grade school, Hoggart’s scholarship boys endure the constant feeling of harsh loneliness. The scholarship boy would always be the first to answer a teacher’s question to the annoyance of the other students. In his home life, the scholarship boy feels as if he does not identify with his family, so conversation is always kept to a minimum. The books that Rodriguez brought home are the epitome of Rodriguez’s imaginative, scholarship boy. They are books that disassociate himself from his family. This loneliness also proves true in Rodriguez’s student life. There seemed to be a barrier between Rodriguez and a normal, social life. Instead of healthily interacting with other people, he hid behind his books. When Rodriguez was a graduate student, he traveled to London to write a dissertation on English Renaissance literature. He found himself in a lonely community of other scholarship children whose â€Å"eyes turned away the moment [their] glances acciden tally met.† (579). The realization of such a life had a profound effect on Rodriguez. Nostalgia started setting in, and he was eager to remember the warmth he experienced as a child. Rodriguez blatantly states that he was the quintessential scholarship boy, but I believe that he has since then shed the label. A scholarship boy is defined by Hoggart as a child who tries to separate himself from his family because of the embarrassment of association. He is the â€Å"odd man out.† (848). However the tone used by Rodriguez in â€Å"The Achievement of Desire† is more nostalgic and melancholy than embarrassed. Rodriguez openly writes about his past, even though it had taken him over â€Å"twenty years to admit.† (564). Hoggart claims that once a scholarship boy has made the transition into a scholar, he will never feel a sense of belonging in his personal, private life. This is where the separation between Hoggart’s scholarship boy and Rodriguez truly begins. In the ending paragraphs of his essay, Rodriguez begins to identify with his parents. He notes that he â€Å"laughed just like his mother† and â€Å"his father’s eyes wer e much like his own.† (580). Although Rodriguez is most likely still the odd man out in his family, he does feel a sense of belonging despite the strained relationship. There is an interesting relationship between Rodriguez and Hoggart’s texts. The structure of Rodriguez’s essay is formatted similar to a reading analysis worksheet. Rodriguez borrows four block quotes from Hoggart’s The Uses of Literacy and comments on them, finding various parallels to his own life. An example of this can be seen when Hoggart writes, â€Å"The scholarship boy discovers a technique of apparent learning, of acquiring of facts rather than of the handling and use of facts. He learns how to receive a purely literate education, one using only a small part of the personality and challenging only a limited area of his being.† (577). Like Hoggart’s scholarship boy, Rodriguez admits he was a bad student. He relied on imitation to get him through the grammar school system. Rodriguez â€Å"used his teachers’ diction, trusting their every direction.† (566). He adopted what he was told to adopt rather than making decisions on his o wn. Rodriguez’s way of paralleling his life to the life of Hoggart’s scholarship boy seems like a very systematic way of writing, which is interesting, because it reflects Rodriguez’s methodical, educational upbringing. However, how Rodriguez uses the text to his advantage is proof that he is no longer a carbon copy of Hoggart’s scholarship boy. The text is broken up into four sections. The first section intertwines the words of Hoggart and Rodriguez describing Rodriguez’s claim on the term â€Å"scholarship boy.† Rodriguez blurs the lines between Hoggart and himself, which allows him to fully align himself with Hoggart’s definition of a scholarship boy. The passage from The Uses of Literacy within this section seems to flow a little too perfectly. It is seamlessly sewn together as if Hoggart’s words and Rodriguez’s personality are one and the same. The second section could have easily been ripped out of Rodriguez’s journal, because of its heavy use of personal events from the essayist’s life. The second section’s polar opposite is the third section, which seems very factual and based on Hoggart’s The Uses of Literacy. Many of the sentences begin with â€Å"The scholarship boy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The second and third sections display some kind of internal battle withi n Rodriguez, but it comes together in the fourth section. Instead of reading Hoggart’s text like a chore and adding it to a list of accomplishments like Rodriguez did with Plato’s The Republic, he comprehends and uses it to aid his voice. He controls the last section with great authority. Rodriguez makes Hoggart’s words work for him and becomes both a close reader and a creator of a literate, personal, and admirable essay. He uses Hoggart’s words, but he does not mimic them like he once mimicked his teachers and critics. Being able to find his own voice as both a reader and reader, as well as becoming aware and accepting of the fact that it is okay to desire the past were key to separating Rodriguez from Hoggart’s prescriptive scholarship boy. Rodriguez even goes as far to describe Hoggart’s scholarship boy as â€Å"more accurate than fair.† (577). Although it is a seemingly an accurate description, of what a young, working-class child may go through in life, it is not every man’s description. The scholarship boy described by Hoggart in The Uses of Literacy seemed to have an ill fate of seclusion and loneliness, but Rodriguez seems to have created a different ending for himself by being able to go back home. The last section of â€Å"The Achievement of Desire† proves that the essay is solely Rodriguez’s. He may have inserted Hoggart’s quotes into his work, yet the essay is still his, because the clarity of his emotions and thoughts is pristine. Rodriguez, Richard. The Achievement of Desire. Ways of Reading. Comp. David Bartholomae and Anthony Petrosky. Boston and New York: Bedford/St. Martins, 2005. 561-584.

Recent Developments in Undercover Policing Assignment

Recent Developments in Undercover Policing - Assignment Example Undercover police functions are a standard feature of contemporary political territory. Several secret revelations in recent days indicate that environmentalists, anti-nuclear and human & animal rights among other groups are likely to be the target of various surreptitious activities. Such activities can take any form, i.e. from the demonstration of supportive activities to training operations in specific organizations. The Ruckus Society is an example of one such organization, which is concerned with various defense activities. This organization delivers tools, training, and support to the environmental, human rights and social justice coordinators (The Ruckus Society, â€Å"About Us†). However, only negligible information has been available regarding the true motives of the organization, i.e. how they operate and how they support various activities among others. Thus, an infiltration has been planned in order to investigate the organization. Accordingly, two female detective s have been chosen in order to go to deep undercover as a part of their investigation. Contextually, when undertaking their investigative activities in The Ruckus Society, they need to maintain certain guidelines. The key objective of this assignment is to provide instructions to the female detectives when performing their duties as undercover agents. The assignment provides guidance for the female detectives in order to undertake investigation activities without compromising the undercover status. Fundamentally, there are two categories of an undercover operation that are categorized as deep cover and light cover. A deep cover infiltrator lives the role with widespread skills in undercover work. Deep cover operations are strongly compartmentalized in the investigation of an organization in order to prevent a breach of security or leak of information.

Has the level of protection for victims of domestic violence being Essay

Has the level of protection for victims of domestic violence being improved by the law - Essay Example This left the victim with the only solution of going back through the courts to request a power of arrest be attached to the injunction3. The 2004 Act has been extended to cover non married partners as well as married couples. The Act repealed s62(3) of the Family Law Act 1996 which laid down a requisite that the courts should take into account the non married status of cohabitants when making decisions regarding domestic violence incidents4. The new legislation also covers anyone who has lived in the same residence as part of a family. This encompasses same sex couples as well as parent and child relationships where either the parents are being attacked by their children or vice versa. Traditionally very few cases of domestic violence ever get prosecuted at court and there seems to be a consensus of opinion within society that most couples will be reunited before the case gets before the courts5. In an attempt to address this problem the criminal justice system has created a new fast track system for domestic violence cases. It has become a countrywide policy for most police forces to adopt the new fast track system with the effect that most cases are heard at court within 14 days of the incident occurring. It was felt by doing this that the courts could help support the victims better and to prevent the abuser from being able to convince their partner to discontinue the case against them. A further approach that has been adopted by the police is to proceed with prosecutions even when the victim has contacted the police to try to discontinue the case. When victims have retracted their original complaint the courts have declared them as a hostile witness and where necessary have subpoenaed them to attend court. It has been suggested that domestic violence victims often change their minds because of dissatisfaction with the way in which the police and the courts treat them as victims. There is a tendency within the police and the court system to

Migration in the US Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Migration in the US - Essay Example This section further states that to consciously employ, hire or continue employing an illegal immigrant will be a great violation of Federal procedures that have been stipulated in 8 U.S 1324a(b)(1)-(3 ) that require the verification of employee. An illegal immigrant is defined in this section to as a person who is not a citizen of or a national of U.S and who has no authority to work in America as stated in the federal law. SECTION 3(1),(16) defines a business entity to as any group of individuals or an individual that operates any activity, profession or engages in an occupation for any gain, benefit, advantage or livelihood either for profit on non profit motive. SECTION 3(2) states that business includes traditional entities, self employed individuals. An employer under Section 3(5) is defined to as any person or business that employees another person within the Alabama states. Section 15 (b): E-VERIFY. This section makes it a requirement that businesses and employers enroll in E -verify system and use the system to verify the eligibility of a person for employment. The E-verify is a federal electronic employment verification system that was established in 1996 by the illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act and is used by the U.S department of Homeland security. Section 3(7) provides that the Alabama Department for Homeland for security has an obligation to create an E-verifier, an employment agency to be used by business or employer with 25 employees or less. Section 25 put it clear that any business or employ that uses the E-verify system will not have violated Section 15.It further puts that the use of E-verifier to verify the status of any employee will be doing it in good faith and shall be in conformity with all Federal laws applicable. SECTION 15(c)-(f): PENALTIES. If a business or employer violates section 15(a), the court of law shall do the following. The unauthorized employed immigrant tenure of work will be terminated .The bus iness that violate this section will be placed on probation for three years and provide quarterly reports about progress of the business regarding the hiring of new employees. The business will be required to provide a sworn affidavit that it has terminated the employment of illegal immigrants and that it shall not hire any other such employee knowingly. The work permit of the business shall be suspended for ten day. The business that may not be using the E-verify will have their business suspended and only after they have introduced the system in their business will their licenses be reinstated. Any subsequent violations by businesses and employer will result into permanent suspension of their entity. According to mondaq.com (2011), states that the new law affects the healthcare providers in their capacity as employer of such services and also affects the provision of health cares. Under this Act, state agencies are required to verify the status of any person applying for public be nefits. This verification will target state universities, health care that are directly operated by state and

Software Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Software Design - Essay Example Its directives are written in simple languages or terms using simple and direct language that any customer is able to understand the requirements. Following the description, it is true that the objective of writing this procedural design is to clearly and illustratively give the targeted readers proper and crisp information (Pressman R., 2003). Procedural design performs the function of transforming structural elements to a procedural description which starts just after data design and architectural design. This type of design comes after data design (where appropriate data structure is selected) and architectural design (which defines any relationships among major structural elements with the view of developing a modular structure and representing control relationships between them). ii. An inclusion of diagrams, photographs or sketches in every step, as apt, is necessary for visual illustrations of necessary concepts. Pieces of information expounding diagrammatic illustrations are to be active voice, instructing a reader on actions to take. iii. A test of all procedures is necessary to ensure high level of accuracy and complete with useful information given. Consistent use of terminologies and no use of abbreviations or acronyms must be practiced for effectiveness. Procedural design is based on a step by step illustration which guides any applications through a series of instructions while Object Oriented Design is a software system designed to offer services to other objects as a set of interacting objects managing their individual states. While in procedural design actions are done systematically (from one step to the other) in object-oriented design objects are distributed and thus may be executed in parallel or sequentially (no specific order followed in execution). Object oriented design is basically

Biomedical science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Biomedical science - Essay Example The researches of previous studies that the authors include do not inform about the harmful consequences of RAGE inhibitors on diabetic patients that should also be a part of the study. As far as the language and style acquired by the authors are concerned, they are quite explicit and easy to understand. The objective that the authors introduced in the abstract was followed in the whole paper and the content was linked. The medical students will have no problem in understanding the article because of simple and explicit language. Anyone having less knowledge of the subject will also be able to understand the article because of simple language. The hypothesis of the research is that diabetic patients are benefitted because of RAGE inhibitors. The authors included arguments and discussions backing their stated hypothesis. For conducting a study, the researchers are required to use different methodologies in the study to come up with a conclusion. Likewise, this study also makes use of three methodologies that are inclusion of experimental animals, ‘diabetes induced retinal histopathology’ and neural retina getting outflow of albumin that gets leaked. The methodologies used by the authors are not used, but also elaborated so that the readers can know about them in detail. The authors also took notice of descriptions regarding usage of methodologies such as the male rodents were used in the research to keep sex related research quite separate. For getting reliable results, the researchers used like samples for the study. For getting information about outcomes of using diversified RAGE inhibitors, the authors used three divided doses to come up with a conclusion that different RAGE inhibitors do not affect the diabetic patients differently. Statistically, the analysis techniques of ANOVA and Fischer, both were used to get satisfying results. The statistical analysis was done in a sequential manner that was supportive in following the

Marketing (as a marketer) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Marketing (as a marketer) - Essay Example In the recessive environment, while pricing has remained the dominant problem, the firms are increasingly facing competition from other macro-environmental factors. The after sales service has become critical to retain customers. An effective distribution and delivery system that focuses on time and place has also become vital part of market strategy (ibid). The fast changing preferences of the customers, technology, environment and ethical considerations have become vital elements that impact organization’s performance outcome. The consumer psychology plays strong role in the development of new products. The market strategy therefore needs to emphasize on brand creation and advertising to suit the segmented market. Wal-Mart’s strategy to introduce private label products should not impact the pricing dynamics of firms like Aveda, Kellogg and Starbucks etc. These firms have already created a niche market for their products and their brand strategy is targeted towards the market segment that strongly believes in the credibility of brands. The perceived value of the products of these companies meets the consumption value and therefore considerably satisfies the target consumer. In the age of advancing technology and globalization, the businesses have become highly competitive. Consumers have become the mainstay of the businesses that has necessitated the need for dynamic market strategies. Indeed, understanding the consumer psychology has become intrinsic part of business decision making. The identification and analysis of consumer behavior at different level of interaction helps the companies to evolve strategies for gaining market position. Thus, product development and market strategy are primarily defined by major segmenting variables like age, gender, income etc. These help provide the firms to develop effective market plans so as to influence the buying decisions of the target market. When

Energy drinks Essay Example for Free

Energy drinks Essay Energy drinks are beverages that can be used to supplement energy and concentration. It contains several ingredients, some good others bad. They contain ingredients such as caffeine, guarana, taurine and many more. Usually they are beneficial, but when taken in large amounts; some ingredients can cause unwelcome side effects. Many people consume energy drinks for enjoyment and the extra kick of energy for the day, but they are not aware of the hidden ingredients that can cause illness. In my opinion I believe that energy drinks are dangerous because they can cause illness, children and teenagers will be affected by the drink and the horrible side effects. The packaging of energy drink might convince you that it is are fine to drink but most of us are unaware of the hidden dangers. Those dangers can put anyone at risk of illness. Energy drinks contain high amounts of sugar similar to soft drink but energy drinks also contain high amounts of caffeine and taurine. Taurine is an amino acid that your body naturally produces. It helps regulate heartbeat, muscle contractions, and energy levels. But when there is too much taurine in our bodies, it can make some body parts overactive, like platelets. Platelets are found in the blood stream and they are very important to the body. They help to clot blood when there is a cut. The sugar makes the platelets overactive which makes them stick together and cause blood clots. This increase risk of heart related disease. In the US a small was conducted, they found that there is a link between the consumption of energy drinks and heart disease or high blood pressure. The researchers found healthy adults who drank two cans of a popular energy drink a day had above normal blood pressure and heart rate. Not only does it affect us both physical and mentally, it can affect children and teens who consume energy drinks. Children and teenagers don’t know what they are consuming and the affect it has on the body. You may see children or teens consuming energy drinks at sporting events instead of sport drinks, to boost energy levels. We may think that energy drinks and sports drinks are the same, but they’re not. Sport drinks provide only carbohydrate and salts to replace those lost in sweat, whilst energy drinks give temporary boost of energy. This may not sound bad but it will affect them over the long term. Like a child suffering with diabetes should not continue drinking energy drinks because the sugars in them can cause an imbalance of insulin. Even the Daily Telegraph thinks that energy drinks are unsafe because it can link to severe illness. The Daily Telegraph has reported â€Å"Energy drinks could be dangerous for children and teenagers,† The newspaper said that the use of high-caffeine drinks has been linked to â€Å"seizures, mania, stroke and sudden death†. Energy drinks can effect children and teenagers and also give people terrible side effects. Some people are not aware that energy drinks can give awful side effects after consumption. There are many side effects that can occur after drinking like vomiting, nausea, and hallucinations. Many ingredients inside energy drinks cause some people allergy reactions. There are many effects that can make people gain weight like people who don’t exercise. The mayo clinic says â€Å"that sugar intake has a direct correlation with weight gain, especially for people who don’t exercise. † But it can get worse, if energy drinks are drank with alcohol, it can make you pass out or get seriously hurt. Energy can drinks can make people sick from the dreadful side effects. However energy drinks create enjoyment among people, it has good taste and contains some good vitamins and herbs like vitamin B, ginseng, ginkgo Biloba and Antioxidants which are good for the body. To finish like to say that we should reconsider drinking energy because they can cause illness, young people will be affected and they can give people terrible side effects.

Salinity in Rice Production

Salinity in Rice Production Rice (Oryza sativa) is the most important crop in the world after wheat, with more than 90% currently grown in Asia. Rice is the grain that has shaped the cultures, diets and economies of billions of Asians. For them, rice is more than food; rice is life. About 120,000 varieties are grown across the world in an extensive range of climatic soil and water condition. It is grown on an area of 149.151 million hectares (ha) yielding 550.193 million tons of paddy with a yield of 3689 kg ha-1 (Alam et al., 2001). In Asia, China is the major rice producing country followed by India, Indonesia and Bangladesh. However, yield per hectare is highest 6.1 tons in Japan, followed by 5.1 tons ha-1 in China. Rice breeders have used genetic variability to produce cultivars that have high yield potential and that resist disease and insect damage and that tolerate cold, drought, and even floods. But apart from some sporadic work in Sri Lanka and India, little has been done until recently to identify any breed/cultivars adaptable to adverse soil conditions such as salinity. Salinity is a major threat to crop productivity in the southern and south-western part of Bangladesh, where it is developed due to frequent flood by sea water of the Bay of Bengal and on the other hand introduction of irrigation with saline waters. In Bangladesh, there are approximately 2.85 million ha of coastal soils (Ponnamperuma, 1977) which occur in the southern parts of the Ganges tidal floodplain, in the young Meghna estuarine floodplain and in tidal areas of the Chittagong coastal plain and offshore islands (Brammer, 1978). About one million ha of land of these coastal and offshore areas are affected by varying degrees of salinity. These coastal saline soils are distributed unevenly in 64 thanas of 13 coastal districts covering 8 agroecological zones (AEZ) of the country. The majority of the saline land (0.65 million ha) exists in the districts of Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat, Barguna, Patuakhali, Pirojpur and Bhola on the western coast and a smaller portion (0.18 million ha) in the districts of Chittagong, Coxs Bazar, Noakhali, Lakshmipur, Feni and Chandpur. According to the report of Soil Resource Development Institute (SRDI) of Bangladesh, about 0.203 million ha of land is very slightly (2-4 dSm-1), 0.492 million ha is slightly (4-8 dSm-1), 0.461 million ha is moderately (8-12 dSm-1) and 0.490 million ha is strongly (>12 dSm-1) salt affected soils in southwestern part of the coastal area of Bangladesh. Large fluctuations in salinity levels over time are also observed at almost all sites in these regions. The common trend is an increase in salinity with time, from November- December to March-April, until the onset of the monsoon rains. The electrical conductivity (EC) of the soils and water are lowest in July-August and highest in March-April at all sites. Soil salinity, at any time, is maximum in the surface layers (0-15 cm), the salinity gradient being vertically downwards. The s alinity in subsoil is usually much lower than that in the top soil. The underground water within 1-2 meters below the soil surface at all locations is moderately to strongly saline in the dry season. The compositions of the soluble salts in these saline soils can indicate possible management strategies for crop production. Sodium has been found to be the dominant cation, and Cl- the dominant anion species. Next in importance are Mg2+ and SO42-. Hence the salts are of the sodium-magnesium and chloride-sulphate types. A very important aspect of the soluble salt composition of the underground water is the large excess of magnesium relative to calcium. Thus proper measures to maintain ionic balance may be needed for good plant growth even under low salinity conditions. There is a general lacking of suitable salt tolerant modern variety (MV) of rice to suited different AEZ in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. The scarcity of good quality irrigation water is a major problem in these areas. The surface water resources are insufficient and irrigated agriculture is largely dependent on ground water resource. The use of such water for irrigation without proper management may render the irrigated soils as salt affected and consequently crop production may be hindered. For centuries, farmers have salt-tolerant cultivars on the saline soils of India, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. But, because of lodging and susceptibility to disease and insect damage, yields are about l ton ha-1. Recognition of the potential of saline lands for rice production in the densely populated countries of south and southeast Asia prompted the inclusion of salt tolerance as a component of the programme of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Of the adverse soil conditions, salinity received most attention, because of its widespread occurrence in current and potential rice lands. Salt tolerance studies are usually conducted in growth chambers and greenhouse, with plants raised in plastic trays or in small pots. The salt tolerance of any crop is usually expressed as decrease in yield associated with a given level of soil salinity as compared with yield under non-saline conditions. The primary salinity factors influencing plant growth are the kind and concentration of salt present in the soil solution. Salt concentration in soil is usually determined by measuring EC of a soil saturation extracts (ECe) obtained from the active root zone. Recently, simple, rapid and reliable instruments such as salinity sensors and four electrode probes, have been developed for measurement of electrical conductivity of soil water (ECsw). Rice is the most suited crop for saline soils because it can tolerate standing water, which is necessary for reclamation of saline soils. Soils are considered saline if they contain soluble salts in quantities sufficient to interfere with the growth of most crop species. Thus, the criterion for distinguishing saline from non-saline soils is arbitrary (Marschner, 1995). According to the definition, a saline soil has an electrical conductivity (EC) greater than 4 milli mhos cm-1 or 4 micro Siemens cm-1 or deci Siemens m-1 and an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and pH of less than 15 and 8.5, respectively. The saline soils with an ESP > 15 and pH > 8.5 are termed as saline-alkaline or saline-sodic soils. However, many different units have been used for salinity level expression. These are molarity (M), milli molarity (mM) (based on molecular weight of the salt); milli mhos cm-1 (mmhos cm-1); micro Siemens cm-1 (Â µS cm-1), deci Siemens m-1 (dS m-1) (based on electrical conductivit y) and % salt (based on percent concentration of the salt). Among these, mM, dSm-1 and % salt concentrations are most commonly used. Approximately 58.5 mgL-1 NaCl = 1mM solution of NaCl and 640 mgL-1 NaCl is equivalent to 1 mmhos cm-1 (= 1 dSm-1) EC (Shannon et al., 1998). Therefore, 1 dSm-1 salinity is equivalent to about 11 mM salt solution. The present population of Bangladesh is about 140 million and rice is the principal food item of its population. The alarming growth of population and loss of arable land due to urbanization are main causes of concern for finding ways and means for augmenting food production particularly rice. The possibility of increasing food production by increasing land area is quite out of question in Bangladesh. The only feasible alternative is to increase the cultivable land areas by bringing salt affected soils under cultivation with high yielding salt tolerant rice cultivars. The lack of an effective evaluation method for salt tolerance in the screening of genotypes is one of the reasons for the limited success in conventional salt tolerant breeding. Two yield parameters, tiller number per plant and spikelet number per panicle, have proved most sensitive to salinity and are highly significantly correlated to final seed yield in rice cultivar under salt stress (Zeng and Shannon, 2000). Salinity in soil or water is one of the major stresses, can severely limit crop production (Shannon, 1998). The deleterious effects of salinity on plant growth are associated with (i) low osmotic potential of soil solution (water stress), (ii) nutritional imbalance, (iii) specific ion effect, or (iv) a combination of these factors (Ashraf, 1994a; Marschner, 1995). All these cause adverse pleiotropic effects on plant growth and development at physiological and biochemical levels (Munns, 2002) and at molecular level (Mansour, 2000). It is often not possible to assess the relative contribution of these major constraints to growth inhibition at high substrate salinity, as many factors are involved. These include ion concentration, duration of exposure, plant species, cultivar and root stock (excluder and includer), stage of plant development, plant organ and environmental conditions. So, to cope with the above constraints, salt stressed plants mainly adopt three mechanisms for salt toler ance such as (i) osmotic adjustment, (ii) salt inclusion/ exclusion and (iii) ion discrimination (Volkmar et al., 1998). Plant growth was seriously affected due to salinity which reduced turgor in expanding tissues and osmoregulation (Steponkus, 1984). Alam el al. (2001) stated that the critical EC level of salinity for seedling growth was about 5 dSm-1. They observed that dry matter, seedling height, root length and emergence of new roots of rice decreased significantly at an electrical conductivity value of 5-6 dSm-1 and during the early seedling stage, more higher salinity caused rolling and withering of leaves, browning of leaf tips and ultimately death of seedlings. They especulated that both osmotic imbalance and Cl- was responsible for suppress of the growth. These authors maintained that the shoot growth was more suppressed than that of root and salt injury was more severe at high temperature (35oC) and low humidity (64%) due to increased transpiration and uptake of water and salt by rice plants. At the reproductive stage, salinity depressed grain yield much more than that at the vegetative gro wth stage (Alam et al., 2001). These authors maintained that at critical salinity levels straw yield was normal but produced little or no grain. The decrease in grain yield was found proportional to the salt concentration and the duration of the saline treatment. When the plants were continuously exposed to saline media, salinity affected the panicle initiation, spikelet formation, fertilization of florets and germination of pollen grains hence caused an increase in number of sterile florets. The greatest injurious effect was on the panicle. Salinity severely reduced the panicle length, number of primary branches per panicle, number of spikelet per panicle, seed setting percentage and panicle weight and reduced the grain yield. The weight of 1000 grains was also reduced. Salt injury resulted in the production of small grains in grain length, width and thickness. Most rice cultivars were severely injured in submerged soil cultures at EC of 8-10 dSm-1 at 25o C; sensitive ones were hur t even at 2 dSm-1. At comparable ECs injury was less in sea water than in solutions of common salt, in neutral and alkaline soils than in acid soils, at 20oC than at 35oC and in 2-week old seedling than in 1-week old seedlings. Since rice plant is susceptible to salinity at transplanting and gains tolerance with age, they advised that aged seedlings (6 weeks old) be planted in saline fields. Salinity affected rice during pollination, decreased seed setting and grain yield (Maloo, 1993). Finck (1977) suggested that deficiency of K and Ca elements might play a significant role in plant growth depression in many saline soils. Girdhar (1988) observed that salinity delayed germination, but did not affect the final germination up to the EC of 8 dSm-1 by evaluating the performance of rice under saline water irrigation. In normal conditions, the Na+ concentration in the cytoplasm of plant cells was low in comparison to the K+ content, frequently 10-2 versus 10-1 and even in conditions of toxicity, most of the cellular Na+ content was confined into the vacuole (Apse et al., 1999). Abdullah et al. (2001) performed an experiment on the effect of salinity stress (50 mM) on floral characteristics, yield components, and biochemical and physiological attributes of the sensitive rice variety IR-28. The results showed significant decrease in panicle weight, panicle length, primary branches per panicle, filled and unfilled grain, total grains and grain weight per panicle, 1000-grain weight and total grain weight per hill. They further observed significant reduction in both chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b content in different parts of the rice leaves at saline condition. In another experiment, Abdullah et al. (2002) studied the effect of salinity on photosynthate translocation in panicle branches and developing spikelets, carbohydrate content of different vegetative parts and suggested that reduction in grain number and grain weight in salinized panicles was not merely due to reduction in pollen viability and higher accumulation of Na+ and less K+ in different floral pa rts but also due to higher accumulation of photosynthates (sugar) in primary and secondary panicle branches, panicle main stalk and panicle stem coupled with reduced activity of starch synthetase in developing grains. Gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) is widely used for ameliorating saline/sodic soils due to its tendency of replacing its Ca2+ with exchangeable Na+ on the soil complex. In addition, gypsum application to saline/sodic soils improve yield of paddy and forage grasses in arid and semi arid regions due to the effects of Ca2+ on plant composition such as decrease in the concentration of Na and improve plant-tissue concentrations of P, K, Zn, Cu, Mg and K:Na ratio (Rengel, 1992). The addition of supplemental Ca to the root environment was a means of enhancing plant tolerance to salt stress (Epstein, 1998). This might favour the increase of Na+ inside the cells, change enzyme activity resulting in cell metabolical alterations; disturbance in K+ uptake and partitioning in the cells, and throughout the plant that might even affect stomatal opening, thereby, impairing the ability of the plant to grow. This author assumed that the addition of Ca2+ to the root environment of salt stressed plants would mainta in or enhance the selective absorption of K+ at high Na+ concentrations and prevent the deleterious effects of the excess of Na+. Another role attributed to supplemental Ca2+ addition was its help in osmotic adjustment and growth via the enhancement of compatible organic solutes accumulation (Girija et al., 2002). Under salt stress conditions there was a decrease in the Ca/Na ratio in the root environment which affected membrane properties, due to displacement of membrane-associated Ca2+ by Na+, leading to a disruption of membrane integrity and selectivity (Cramer et al., 1985; Kinraide, 1998). Aslam et al. (1993) observed significant reduction in shoot and root fresh weights by different types of salinity such as NaCl alone, NaCl + CaCl2, Na2CO3 alone and a salts mixture. On the plant growth, NaCl alone was found to be the most toxic, Na2CO3 alone was the least harmful, and NaCl + CaCl2 and the salts mixture were intermediate. They found similar results in both solution culture experiment and the experiments conducted in salinized soils. They considered the better root growth under high salinity condition as the capacity of the tolerant genotypes to combat the adverse effect of salinity. Aslam et al. (2001) investigated the effect of supplemental Ca on rice growth and yield in solution and soil cultures, and in naturally salt affected field. In solution culture, Ca was applied at 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 and 160 Â µg/mL with 80 mM NaCl and without NaCl and in soil culture 0, 50, 100 and 200 kg Ca ha-1 was applied to artificially prepared salinity (EC 9 dSm-1). Three cultivars, d iffering in salt tolerance, were used, namely K8-282 (salt tolerant), BG 402-4 (moderately tolerant) and IR-28 (salt sensitive). Application of Ca at 20-40 Â µg/mL improved tillering capacity, shoot and root length, shoot and root weights in solution culture in the presence of NaCl. Shoot Na+ and Cl- decreased, whereas K+ concentration and K+/Na+ ratio increased because of Ca supply to saline medium. Grain and straw yields, plant height and panicle length were significantly higher in saline compared to saline sodic soil. Application of 200 kg Ca ha-1 proved statistically superior to the control in respect of panicle length, numbers of tillers, grain and straw yields under both saline and saline sodic soil as well as in naturally salt-affected field. Seed setting was improved in all cultivars because of external Ca supply to saline and saline sodic soils. Aslam et al. (2003) stated that an increase in potassium and K+/Na+ ratio was an indication of salt tolerance due to the applicat ion of additional Ca in both salt tolerant and susceptible rice cultivars under saline environment. These authors maintained that salt affected soils showed an improvement in the paddy yield of both salt tolerant and salt sensitive rice cultivars due to Ca application as gypsum at the rate of 25% of gypsum requirement of soil. Franco et al. (1999) studied the effect of supplemental CaCl2 on growth and osmoregulation in NaCl stressed cowpea seedlings. They found that salinity inhibited the length of root and shoot of cowpea but the inhibitory effect could be ameliorated by the addition of Ca2+. The concentration of organic osmoregulators (proline, soluble carbohydrates, soluble amino-nitrogen, and soluble proteins) increased in root tips of seedlings grown in salt-stressed condition with supplemental Ca. They indicated that Ca2+ could have a protective effect in root tips, which is of fundamental importance for the maintenance of root elongation in NaCl stressed cowpea seedlings. Considerable improvements in salinity tolerance have been made in crop species in recent times through conventional selection and breeding techniques (Shannon, 1998; Ashraf, 1994a; 2002). Most of the selection procedures have been based on differences in agronomic characters, which represent the combined genetic and environmental effects on plant growth and include the integration of the physiological mechanisms conferring salinity tolerance. Typical agronomic selection parameters for salinity tolerance are yield, biomass, plant survivality, plant height, leaf area, leaf injury, relative growth rate and relative growth reduction. Many scientists have suggested that selection is more convenient and practicable if the plant species possesses distinctive indicators of salt tolerance at the whole plant, tissue or cellular level (Ashraf, 2002; Epstein and Rains, 1987; Jacoby, 1999; Munns, 2002). Physiological criteria are able to supply more objective information than agronomic parameters or visual assessment while screening for component traits of complex characters (Yeo, 1994). There are no well-defined plant indicators for salinity tolerance that could practically be used by plant breeders for improvement of salinity tolerance in a number of important agricultural crops. This is partly due to the fact that the mechanism of salt tolerance is so complex that variation occurs not only amongst species but, in many cases, also among cultivars within a single species (Ashraf, 1994a; 2002). During the course of plant growth, the form and functions of various organs undergo significant change and the ability of the pla nt to react to salinity stress depend on those genes that are expressed at the stage of development during which the stress is imposed (Epstein and Rains, 1987). The mechanism of salinity tolerance becomes even more complicated when the response of a plant also varies with the concentration of saline medium and the environmental conditions in which the plant is grown. Osmotic adjustment in plants subjected to salt stress can occur by the accumulation of high concentration of either inorganic ions or low molecular weight organic solutes. Although both of these play a crucial role in higher plants grown under saline conditions, their relative contribution varies among species, among cultivars and even between different compartments within the same plant (Ashraf, 1994a). The compatible osmolytes generally found in higher plants are of low molecular weight sugars, organic acids, amino acids, proteins and quaternary ammonium compounds. According to Cram (1976), of the various organic osmotica, sugars contribute up to 50% of the total osmotic potential in glycophytes subject to saline conditions. The accumulation of soluble carbohydrates in plants has been widely reported as response to salinity or drought, despite a significant decrease in net CO2 assimilation rate (Popp and Smirnoff, 1995; Murakeozy et al., 2003). Ashraf and Tufail (1995) determined the total soluble sugars content in five sunflower accessions differing in salt tolerance. They found that the salt tolerant lines had generally greater soluble sugars than the salt sensitive ones. Ashraf and Harris (2004) suggested that considerable variations in the accumulation of soluble sugars in response to salt stress were evident at both inter-specific and/or intra-specific levels and even among lines of which all were salt tolerant. Several salt-induced proteins have been identified in plant species and have been classified into two distinct groups such as (i) salt stress proteins, which accumulate only due to salt stress and (ii) stress associated proteins, which also accumulate in response to heat, cold, drought, water-logging and high and low mineral nutrients (Pareek et al., 1997; Ali et al., 1999; Mansour, 2000). Proteins that accumulate in plants grown under saline conditions may provide a storage form of nitrogen that is neutralized when stress is over and may play a role in osmotic adjustment (Singh et al., 1987). A higher content of soluble proteins has been observed in salt tolerant than in salt sensitive cultivars of barley, sunflower (Ashraf and Tufail, 1995) and rice (Lutts et al., 1996; Pareek et al., 1997). Pareek et al. (1997) also suggested that stress proteins could be used as important molecular markers for improvement of salt tolerance using genetic engineering techniques. Amino acids have been reported to have accumulated in higher plants under salinity stress (Ashraf, 1994b; Mansour, 2000). The important amino acids are alanine, arginine, glycine, serine, leucine and valine, together with the imino acid proline and the non-protein amino acids- citrulline and ornithine (Mansour, 2000). Lutts et al. (1996) found that proline did not take part in osmotic adjustment in salt stressed rice and its accumulation seemed to be a symptom of injury rather than an indicator of salt tolerance. On the contrary, Garcia et al. (1997) reported that exogenously applied proline exacerbated the deleterious effects of salt on rice. The salt tolerant rice cultivars Nona Bokra and IR 4630 accumulated less proline in their leaves than the salt sensitive Kong Pao and IR 31785 (Lutts et al.,1996). These contrasting reports on the role of proline in salt tolerance and its use as selection criterion for salt tolerance in rice has been questioned. Regulation of ion transport is one of the important factors responsible for salt tolerance of plants. Membrane proteins play a significant role in selective distribution of ions within the plant or cell (Ashraf and Harris, 2004). According to Du-Pont (1992) the membrane proteins involved in cation selectivity and redistribution of Na+ and K+. These proteins are: (a) primary H+-ATPases which generate the H+ electrochemical gradient that drives ion transport, (b) Na+/H+ antiports in the plasma membrane for pumping excess Na+ out of the cell, (c) Na+/H+ antiports in the tonoplast for extruding Na+ into the vacuole and (d) cation channels with high selectivity for K+ over Na+. It is well established that Na+ moves passively through a general cation channel from the saline growth medium into the cytoplasm of plant cells (Marschner, 1995; Jacoby, 1999; Mansour et al., 2003) and the active transport of Na+ through Na+/H+ antiports in plant cells is also evident (Shi et al., 2003). Salt tole rance in plants is generally associated with low uptake and accumulation of Na+, which is mediated through the control of influx and/ or by active efflux from the cytoplasm to the vacuoles and also back to the growth medium (Jacoby, 1999). Energy-dependent transport of Na+ and Cl- into the apoplast and vacuole can occur along the H+ electrochemical potential gradients generated across the plasma membrane and tonoplast (Hasegawa et al., 2000). The tonoplast H+ pumps (H+-ATPase and H+-pyrophosphatase) also play a significant role in the transport of H+ into the vacuole and generation of proton (H+) which operates the Na+/H+ antiporters (Mansour et al., 2003; Blumwald, 2000). In the past few decades, plant breeders in Bangladesh have achieved little success in developing some salinity tolerant crops specially rice through conventional breeding techniques, with relatively little/no direct input from physiologists or biochemists. Mutation breeding, a modern technique for creating variability has also played a vital role for generating new valuable cultivars of rice. Incorporation of mutation programme for achieving a desired character(s) in a variety can thus reduce the time required to breed an improved variety with the conventional hybridization method. Several cultivars derived from direct utilization of induced mutants have shown that traits such as short straw, earliness and resistance to certain diseases, can be introduced in otherwise well-adapted varieties without significantly altering their original attributes. Study on the response of rice to salinity stress may be helpful in breeding salt tolerant cultivars by identifying physico-chemical potent ial of salinity tolerance such as accumulation of toxic Na+ and Cl- in the older parts of the plant, higher photosynthetic efficiency of the leaves, escaping ability to uptake Na+ and Cl-. The direct use of mutation is a valuable approach especially when the improvement of one or two easily identifiable characters is desired in an otherwise well-developed variety. In order to develop practicable strategies for selecting salt tolerant rice mutants/lines/genotypes adaptable in coastal belt of Bangladesh notably during boro season, detailed information needs to be gathered on the changes in physiological and biochemical aspects due to salt stress are attributable against detrimental effects of salt stress. In addition to the development of salt tolerant cultivars, better understanding of nutritional disorders in the context of plant nutrient uptake and physiological as well as biochemical mechanisms of salt tolerance in rice plants may suggest some strategies for plant breeders and growers for developing salinity tolerant varieties and management practices for cultivation in saline areas. There have been few such studies available in the country or elsewhere on rice for tolerance mechanism created especially in mutant genotypes. This research programme has been, therefore, planned with the aim of finding out the bio-chemical causes and possible soil amelioration programme in cultivating the rice mutants in the coastal saline soils of Bangladesh. Keeping the above ideas, in mind, the present work has therefore, been designed and planned with the following objectives: Â  investigating the effect of salinity on some bio-chemical aspects and growth of different rice genotypes at different growth stages, finding out the mechanism of salinity tolerance of selected rice genotypes; and suggest possible reclamation programme for better growth of rice under saline condition.